Individual #philosophy  the rational investigation of questions about existence and knowledge and ethics
  instance of:  humanistic_discipline
  >part:  ethics__moral_philosophy__moralphilosophy  the philosophical study of moral values and rules
     >part:  casuistry  moral philosophy based on the application of general ethical principles to resolve moral dilemmas
        >part:  probabilism.casuistry  a Roman Catholic system of casuistry that when expert opinions differ an actor can follow any solidly probable opinion that he wishes even though some different opinion might be more probable
     >part:  eudemonism__endaemonism  an ethical system that evaluates actions by reference to personal well-being through a life based on reason
     >part:  hedonism.ethics  an ethical system that evaluates the pursuit of pleasure as the highest good
  >part:  etiology__aetiology  the philosophical study of causation
  >part:  aesthetics__esthetics__esthetic  the branch of philosophy dealing with beauty and taste (emphasizing the evaluative criteria that are applied to art); "traditional aesthetics assumed the existence of universal and timeless criteria of artistic value"
  >part:  axiology  the study of values and value judgments
  >part:  legal_philosophy__legalphilosophy__jurisprudence  the branch of philosophy concerned with the law
  >part:  metaphysics__metaphysic  the philosophical study of being and knowing
     >part:  ontology  the metaphysical study of the nature of being and existence
     >part:  cosmology  the metaphysical study of the origin and nature of the universe
  >part:  dialectic  any formal system of reasoning that arrives at the truth by the exchange of logical arguments
  >part:  logic.philosophy  the branch of philosophy that analyzes inference
     >part:  modal_logic.logic  the logical study of necessity and possibility
     >part:  inductive_reasoning_system__inductivereasoningsystem  study of deriving a "reliable" ("inductively valid") generalization from observations
     >part:  deductive_reasoning_system__deductivereasoningsystem  an inference is "deductively valid" if and only if there is no possible situation in which all the premises are true and the conclusion false
     >part:  binary_logic__boolean_logic__booleanlogic  logic where the principle of bivalence is respected; this principle states that for any proposition P, either P is true or P is false
     >part:  multi-valued_logic__many-valued_logic  logic in which there are more than two possible truth values
        >part:  fuzzy_logic__fuzzylogic
        >part:  probability_logic__probabilitylogic
     >part:  informal_logic  study of logic as used in natural language arguments
     >part:  formal_logic
        >part:  philosophical_logic__philosophicallogic  deals with formal descriptions of natural language and hence philosophical logicians have contributed a great deal to the development of non-standard logics
        >part:  mathematical_logic__symbolic_logic__metamathematics__metamathematic
           >part:  application_of_techniques_of_formal_logic_to_mathematics
              >part:  logicism  pioneered by philosopher-logicians such as Gottlob Frege and Bertrand Russell: the idea was that mathematical theories were logical tautologies, and the programme was to show this by means to a reduction of mathematics to logic. The various attempts to carry this out met with a series of failures, from the crippling of Frege's project in his Grundgesetze by Russell's Paradox, to the defeat of Hilbert's Program by Gödel's incompleteness theorems; however, every rigorously defined mathematical theory can be exactly captured by a first-order logical theory; Frege's proof calculus is enough to describe the whole of mathematics, though not equivalent to it
           >part:  application_of_mathematical_techniques_to_formal_logic
           >part:  sentential_logic__propositional_logic__propositional_calculus  proof theory for reasoning with propositional formulas as symbolic logic; it is extensional
           >part:  predicate_logic__predicatelogic__predicate_calculus  permits the formulation of quantified statements such as "there is at least one X such that..." or "for any X, it is the case that...", where X is an element of a set called the domain of discourse
              >part:  FOL__first-order_logic__firstorderlogic__first-order_predicate_calculus__predicate_logic__predicatelogic  FOL is distinguished from HOL in that it does not allow statements such as "for every property, it is the case that..." or "there exists a set of objects such that..."; it is a stronger theory than sentential logic, but a weaker theory than arithmetic, set theory, or second-order logic; it is strong enough to formalize all of set theory and thereby virtually all of mathematics
                 >part:  PCEF_logic__logic_of_positive_conjunctive_existential_formulas
              >part:  HOL__higher-order_logic  based on a hierarchy of types
           >part:  logic_for_reasoning_about_computer_programs
              >part:  Hoare_logic
              >part:  logic_for_reasoning_about_concurrent_processes_or_mobile_processes
                 >part:  CSP
                 >part:  CCS
                 >part:  pi-calculus
              >part:  logic_for_capturing_computability__logicforcapturingcomputability
                 >part:  computability_logic__computabilitylogic
        >part:  non-modal_logic__nonmodallogic__extensional_logic__extensionallogic  as opposed to intensional logics, the truth value of a complex sentence is determined by the truth values of its sub-sentences
        >part:  modal_logic__intensional_logic__intensionallogic  sentences are qualified by modalities such as possibly and necessarily; both "Bush is president" and "2+2=4" are true, yet "Necessarily, Bush is president" is false, while "Necessarily, 2+2=4" is true
           >part:  deontic_logic__deonticlogic
           >part:  epistemic_logic__epistemiclogic
           >part:  temporal_logic  system of rules and symbolism for representing, and reasoning about, propositions qualified in terms of time
              >part:  tense_logic__tenselogic
              >part:  computational_tree_logic__CTL
              >part:  linear_temporal_logic
           >part:  conditional_logic__conditionallogic
        >part:  classical_logic
        >part:  non_classical_logic
        >part:  type_theory  branch of mathematics and logic that concerns itself with classifying entities into sets called types
        >part:  term_logic__traditional_logic__traditionallogic
           >part:  Aristotelian_logic
        >part:  dialectical_logic__dialecticallogic
  >part:  epistemology  the philosophical theory of knowledge
     >part:  methodological_analysis__methodology  the branch of philosophy that analyzes the principles and procedures of inquiry in a particular discipline
  >part:  transcendentalism__transcendentalphilosophy  any system of philosophy emphasizing the intuitive and spiritual above the empirical and material

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